Odisha’s 7 Year War with Vijayanagara and Stubborn Odia Resistance.

The Rise of Suryavanshi Gajapati Empire of Odisha under Kapilendra Deva Routray

Kapilendra Deva Routray was the adopted son and an a minster in the court of the last but weakened Eastern Ganga Dynasty ruler, Bhanudeva. He usurped the throne of Odisha in absence of Bhanudeva started the Suryavanshi Dynasty. During his ascent to the throne the Sultan of Bengal, Ahmed Shah invaded Odisha but was defeated by the help of his trusted minister Gopinath Mohapatra. Faced with internal rebellions from the allies of the previous dynasty and feudal lords, he managed to contain the enemies at the border territories and consolidated his authority over the throne with brute force in 1443 A.D.

The southern enemies of Odisha, Reddys of Rajamundry and Devaraya II of Vijayanagara kingdom invaded his southern borders. Kapilendra Deva attacked and defeated them in numerous pitched battles. Later he defeated Malikarjuna of Vijayanagara and captured the Vijayanagara territory of Hampi. Malikarjuna was forced to be a vassal king and pay annual tributes. Kapilendra Deva camped on the river Godavari with a large 7,00,000 strong Odia army. Sensing threat from the Muslim Bahamani rulers he attacked them and occupied territories till the 8 miles outskirts of the capital, Bidar. Before he could march on Bidar, the Muslim Sharqui ruler of Jaunpur invaded his northern borders with 3,00,000 cavalry and 1400 war elephants forcing him to abandon the campaign and move against the invading enemy. The invaders were defeated and chased beyond the river Ganga. His eldest son and an able military commander, Hamvira Deva continued the campaign in the southern territories in his absence and finally subdued the Reddys of Rajamundry securing the southern territories. Kapilendra Deva with the help of Hamvira Deva managed to spread his empire from the river Ganga in north till the River Kaveri in south with Rameswaram marking as the southernmost point of his Empire by 1461 A.D. Despite numerous troubles from the beginning of his rule, Kapilendra Deva proved his worth as a warrior and an empire builder.

Civil War of Succession between Hamvira Deva and Purrushottama Deva

Kapilendra Deva passed the throne to his younger son Purushottama Deva instead of his brilliant military commander and son Hamvira Deva who had assisted him in building a large empire and proven his battle hardened worth. According to folklore, Kalpilendra Deva was initially confused over choosing the next Gajapti as both the sons were worthy. While climbing the twenty two holy steps at Purl Jagannath Temple, he was consistently seeking the lord’s divine guidance for the final decision while both the sons were accompanying behind him. The divine sign came right away as the royal garment worn by Kapilendra Deva around his shoulders and slipped away. The Gajapati prayed that the one son out of the two who will display no ego and will be submissive enough to pick up the cloth from the ground back to his father’s shoulders will be righteous enough to be the next emperor. Surprisingly, the learned younger son Purushottama Deva picks up the cloth as the battle hero and proud Hamvira Deva hesitates to bend down for the same. The choice was made with an exemplary instance on the very holy steps of the lord’s abode.

While Purushottma Deva was crowned in 1468 A.D, Hamvira Deva declares war on him to claim the throne in 1471 A.D. Hamvira Deva aligns with the old enemy, the Bahamani Sultans and secures their assistance in reinstalling himself on the throne. Bahamani Sultan agrees to him under the terms of the return of Udayagiri and Kondapalli regions from Odisha to them. Hamvira Deva defeats his younger brother and reclaims the Odisha throne as a vassal king under the Bahamanis in 1474 A.D. Taking advantage of the political disturbance, Saluva Narasingh of Vijayanagara re-captures Udaygiri fort. Ousted Purushottama Deva regroups his strength and attacks Hamvira Deva in 1476 A.D and reclaims his throne as he was powerless under the Bahamani Kingdom which was also suffering drought meanwhile.

Re-Capture of the Southern Territories

Purushottama marched south to reclaim lost territories with 10,000 Cavalry and 8,000 infantry and drove out Nizam-ul-mulk Hasan Bahrl from Rajmahendri. Within six years of the death of Bahmani Sultan, Purushottama had overrun the whole of the Godavari-Krishna doab and driven out the Muslims from their coveted post of Kondavidu where there was a bloody rebellion already underway. He captured the Bellamkonda fort driving the Muslims out of there. He attacked Kanchivarram ruled by Vijayanagara king, Virupaksha Raya II in 1489 A.D. The story of first two failed attempts to do so and then being assured by Lord Jagannath in his dreams followed by his success on the third attempt is immortalized in the Kanchi Kaveri Upakhyana of Odisha. According to the texts his marriage proposal to the Vijayanagara princess was rejected in a dishonorable manner before the campaign. After his victory over Kanchi, he brings back the Kanchi Ganesh and goddess Tarini idol as war trophies along with the princess for marriage. 

Prataprudra Deva Loses a Chance to Wipeout the Rival Vijayanagara and other Hostile Muslim Domains Due to Crisis in Odisha

Prataprudra Deva succeeds Purushottama Deva as the next Gajapati in the year 1497 A.D. In the initial years he was in a position to expand his empire as the Vijayanagara kingdom was falling apart due to its declining rule of Suluva dynasty. The Rajavolu and Anantvaram inscriptions of Prataprudra Deva confirm that he marched south willing to capture Rameswaram and met with success till Penar River after capturing the Vijayanagara capital for a brief period of time. He had also captured the forts of Khambammettu and Warangal in Telegana. While Prataprudra was halting over the city with the Odia army planning for further advance, severe famine struck Odisha in the year 1507-1508 A.D forcing him to abandon his advance for relief operations back home. King Vira Narashima of Vijayanagara eventually took control of the lost regions in his absence the following year. Hearing about this Prataprudra Deva prepared for a second southern campaign and marched again. But he was helpless to further reoccupy the recently lost territories in south as the Muslim Sultan Hussain Shah of Bengal invaded the northern borders of Odisha and the Muslim raiders had come inside the Odia heartland of Puri overrunning the Cuttack fort gallantly defended by his Gada Nayak (General) Ananta Samantaraya. The Jagannath idols were secretly moved out of the Puri temple and hidden in an island of the Chilika Lake.  Prataprudra Deva had to rush back to defend his kingdom while the raiders were defensively held up by his chosen governor, Bhoi Bidyadhar. The Gajapati chased the Muslims out of Odisha till Hugli’s Mandaran fort where they were defeated despite the treachery by some of his side changing generals like Govinda Bidhyadhar. By the time he emerged victorious over Bengal’s Muslim Sultan, a new and energetic king, Krishna Deva Raya ascended the throne in Vijayanagara rapidly revolutionizing the army with modern weapons, war horse purchases and training from Portuguese as well as the Arabs. To add to the further setbacks of Odisha, the great devotee Chaitanya arrived in Puri invoking the revolutionary neo-vaishnavism spiritual movement. Prataprudra Deva on his return from the Bengal campaign also slides into this environment because of his soft devotional heart, partially halting his much required military endeavors for the survival of the empire. A few conspiracy theorists doubt that some of Chaitanya’s followers were former court officials of the hostile Sultan Hussain Shah of Bengal.

                              

       IMAGE : Painting of Prataprudra Deva in service of the Devotte Chaitanya.

The Odia Military Organization and Preparedness before the Start of Hostilities

The Portuguese traveler, Duarte Barbosa who arrived in India at Vijayanagara in 1504 A.D and stayed till 1514 A.D mentions that the kingdom of Odisha was comprised of very good fighting men and the king possessed a mighty army of foot soldiers besides mentioning the ongoing skirmishes between Vijayanagara and Odisha. He also mentions that northern extent of the Odisha kingdom was till the River Ganga which was often called as Gouri Gua by the Odias then and was important place for pilgrimage. Beyond the River was the kingdom of Bengal with which the King of Odisha was also at war often.

The Odia army was primarily comprised of the peasant militia called Paikas. The recruits were selected from different castes and tribes, but for infantry combatants, the ‘Chasas’ or the peasant class people were mostly selected from an age of 20 for military service because they were physically and mentally tough. They underwent rigorous and dangerous training and were ever ready for battles. Paikas were also the ancient most combatants of Odisha and the term is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Padadika’. Paikas used various mantras or chanting during warfare to keep their morals boosted even in the face of impending death.   

The Annotations

·         Phadikaras - Swordsmen

·         Dhanuki or Banua – Mask wearing Archers

·         Prahari – The policing wing of the Paikas

·         Dhenkiya – Expeditionary or Attack force

·         Itakaras - Dancers and Entertainers.

The presence of the Itakaras gives a clear picture about the knowledge of experienced war time psychological and motivational efforts for the soldiers. The Ghumura folk dance is believed to be the ancient most form of motivational war dance.

The Major Infantry Designations of the Time

·         Senapati or Senadhyaksha – Commander of the Army units.

·         Champati – Commander of Chamu or Army divisions.

·         Vahinipati – Paika Troop Commander.

·         Paikaraya – Paika Band Commander.

·         Dala Behera – Detachment or Group commanders.

·         Gada Nayak / Nayak – Garrison Commanders and Fort duty officers.

·         Bahubalendra - Officer in charge of the Non combatants. 

·         Bhoimmul – Officer in charge of recruitment.

Infantry Divisions

·         Dala – Consisted 27 Paikas.

·         Bhuyian – Consisted 70 Paikas.

·         Vahini – Consisted many Bhuyians.

·         Chamu – Consisted number of Vahinis as per requirement.

The main strength of the Odia army depended on infantry, cavalry and Squads of Elephants. The Gajapati title for the kings of Odisha literally means the lord of war elephants. Elephant corps and cavalry had subsequent designations. In one battle with Krishna Deva Prataprudra used 1300 elephants and 20,000 horses and 5,00,000 strong Paikas. 

Disadvantages in Terms of Strategic Location

The Vijayanagara kingdom had three strategic advantages over the Gajapati Empire. They only faced two frontal enemies the Gajapatis and the Bahamani Muslim sultanate while its flank was completely covered by the ocean without any enemies threatening them. The Gajapati Odisha was facing hostile warring enemies on three fronts including the Vijayanagara Empire, new Muslim Sultanate of Golconda and the Muslim ruled Bengal in the north. Besides this the Bahamani Sultanate towards the west was not reliable of its allegiance if hostilities broke out. Prataprudra Deva had to scatter his military deployments in all the three fronts unlike Vijayanagara which was able to concentrate its complete strength on one opponent while containing the other with defensive deployments. The second disadvantage for Odisha was the location of its far outstretched frontier forts away from the capital Cuttack whereas Vijayanagara’s capital was in the immediate vicinity of the frontier forts controlled by few Odias giving them capability to rush supplies, forces and aid faster than Odisha. The third disadvantage for Odisha was seize of Sea trade activity or very little sea trade which is also mentioned by the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbossa. However, Barbossa’s presence in the Vijayanagara kingdom himself at the time was due to the open sea trade activity on the west coast of India. The west coast trade routes opened the path for advanced foreign firearms, weaponry and war horses to be availed by Vijayanagara. Besides the trade, experienced foreign mercenaries were brought in to train the army with new combat techniques.

Seize of Udayagiri and the 3:1 Outmatched Heroic Resistance for 18 Months

Krishna Deva Raya was facing enemies on two fronts of his kingdom. The Bahamani Sultanate was a prevailing threat to the Vijayanagara kingdom along with the Gajapati Empire on his eastern front. Krishna Deva Raya had revolutionized his forces with increased man power and foreign weapons technology of the time. For instance before his time horse mounted archery was only known to the armies in north India but as per the written accounts of the time, at one point of time 60,000 horsemen where being trained in Vijayanagara to shoot arrows with perfection while riding on their horse continuously. The Arab tradesmen were selling the finest horses to the army and the Portuguese were supplying them with the firearms training and weapons. Southern port of Bhatkal in the western coast of India was a market from where horses were imported from outside and the dealers coming from the Vijayanagara kingdom paid the price of 200 to 300 Portuguese gold coins along with a government tax of 40 such coins for every horse. Krishna Deva also had created an effective spy network that ultimately proved to be more deadly during battle. He also had an able strategist like the prime advisor Timma Raju or Appa Rao on whose advice he first decided to invade the outstretched Odia army in the eastern front rather than the Muslim Adil-Sahi Sultanate of Bijapur towards north. 

As the first move, Vijayanagara forces subdued the Velama rulers of Bhuvangiri along with others in the year 1512 that were vassals of the Gajapati Empire and had assisted the Odia army in building the Udayagiri fort before. Marching up to the Krishna River, Krishna Deva suddenly attacks Odia stronghold of Udayagiri fort as it was closer to the Vijayanagara capital and then the Gajapati Capital, Cuttack and relatively also away from their regional administrative headquarters of Kondapalli. Prataprudra Deva was not expecting an attack on the Udayagiri Fort as there were good relations with Krishna Deva Raya since his coronation three years back. The fort was  also impregnable with a difficult terrain around it allowing access only through a narrow passage which could only afford one man to walk through straight. Udayagiri was guarded by the able general and his paternal uncle, Tirumala Routraya. A strong Odia garrison of 10,000 infantry and 400 horsemen guarded the fort with constant vigil and with nearly 8000 men deployed on the outskirts of the fort.

Krishna Deva launches a sudden attack with an army consisting of 34,000 infantry and 800 elephants which clearly portrays 1:3 outmatched figures within the armies facing each other. The wits of the Odias were pushed to unimaginable limits under the attack and due the natural strength of the location they put up a stubborn resistance. The writings of Fernao Nunes mention that there was a tooth and nail fight put up by the Odia soldiers who were strongly determined to not give up their positions. Krishna Deva had to take the lead himself when his best techniques of seize and his most capable generals failed in making much headway for a long time. His army had to cut through boulders from the surrounding hills to find a suitable position and path to lay an effective attack on the heroic Odia garrison which held out for a long 18 months time suffering from starvation. Odia soldiers were dying of starvation but didn’t surrender despite any help arriving from Odisha. Prataprudra Deva had deployed his forces on the northern frontier against the Muslim invaders of Bengal and was unable to send immediate help to the trapped garrison. Krishna Deva Raya’s forces were able to track this helplessness of the Gajapati with their spy network of Sthanapatis (ambassadors) in the Vijayanagara embassy at Odisha. The Odia garrison had to finally surrender after good deal of resistance and extremely heroic cum gallant efforts to hold their positions under starvation on 9^th June 1514. Along with the capture of Gajapati’s own paternal uncle, the Vijayanagara forces also carried away the Bala Gopala idol from the fort as a war trophy.

Odia Resistance on the Way to Kondavidu Fort

The forts of Kondapalli and Kondavidu were situated along the Krishna River surrounded by a difficult non supportive terrain for an invading army. Kondapalli was the administrative headquarters of the Gajapati Empire and the crown prince of Odisha, Virabhadra was himself in charge of Kondavidu fort. To objectively capture the important forts, Krishna Deva first decided to bring down the smaller forts on the way where separate Odia garrisons were organizing the defense preparations after the fall of Udayagiri.  Krishna Deva understood that if Kondavidu and Kondapalli were taken head on then the Odia garrisons in the smaller forts could attack him on his flanks. The first attack came on Vinukonda followed by Bellamkonda and later on the other forts like Nagarjunakonda, Addanki, Ketavaram, etc. The stubborn resistance of the respective Odia garrisons in the smaller forts halted the progress of the Vijayanagara forces by six months to Kondavidu. Accounts specifically mention that the Odia fighters were stubborn and were not willing to stand down even after the fort fell and consistently tried to regain their control creating troubles for their enemy. Probably the fierce defensive stand for Kondavidu and Kondapalli was held with high moral as the defenders understood that if Kondapalli falls then the enemy might be able to march on to Odisha directly later.

Stubborn Resistance at Kondavidu Fort

Vijayanagara forces attacked Kondavidu fort after the smaller forts on the way fell. Prataprudra Deva arrived with a force consisting 50,000 infantry of hard fighting Paikas to reinforce the stranded Odia garrisons at Kondavidu and Kondapalli. Learning about this from his spies, Krishna Deva decided to retreat. He understood that the presence of Gajapati himself would be a huge morale booster for the stranded Odia garrisons and they will be unbreakable considering their stubborn resistance which was a difficult for his forces to crack down despite huge losses. The retreat was a part of Krishna Deva’s strategy of ‘Bheda’ (penetration into the enemy lines through espionage without direct attack). The momentary retreat convinced the Gajapati about the safety of the fort from any further incursions by the enemy. Marking sufficient deployments at Kondavidu, he left for Kondapalli fort situated four miles away from Vijayawada for reinforcements. After he left from Kondavidu, Krishna Deva under the advice of his Timma Raju tried to successfully bribe some officers of Gajapati.

Vijayanagara forces marched up to the foothills of Kondavidu fort enforcing an assault. The gallant crown prince in charge of the fort resisted the enemy for three months with the Odia Garrison and frustrated the enemy. The Amuktamalyada accounts written by Krishna Deva himself says that Odia soldiers assembled in the fort went to heaven without receiving a wound on their bodies, which signifies that the soldiers were dying out of thirst due to lack of water but bravely held on. The Ahobalam inscription says that the Vijayanagara forces erected movable wooden platforms called Nadachapparams to level themselves to the height of the fort walls and launch attacks from outside on the stubborn garrison. After a frustrating long battle, Timma Raju discovered a secret entrance to the eastern gates of the fort and marched in a force of 10,000 men to assault the starving and thirsty Odia garrison. The gallant Virabhadra and the Gajapati’s grandson, Narahari Patra were captured with the surrender of the garrison on 23^rd June 1515.  The strategy of Bheda worked for Krishna Deva as some of the absconders from the fort later joined the Vijayanagara forces and were reappointed on behalf of Vijayanagara. It is also quite possible that some of them disclosed the secret entrance into the fort before Timma Raju.

Attack on Kondapalli and Capture of the Queen of Gajapati

Kondapalli is situated northeast of Vijayawada towards the north of Krishna River. Taking desperate measures to guard the Dandapat headquarters, Prataprudra Deva convinced hostile Qutub Shai Muslim ruler to support him in containing the Vijayanagara army. Muslim detachments jointly defended the Kondapalli fort with the Odias. Dreadful fighting ensued at the Kondapalli fort with the death on both the sides. The fight turned even dreaded as the Gajapati sent a detachment to reinforce the overwhelmed Odia and Muslim soldiers at Kondapalli. Sadly one of the three queens of Gajapati was present at the fort that time. The Odia detachment was defeated at Vijayawada while the rest of the army retreated back to Simhadri in north. The Muslim detachment along with few Odia soldiers at Kondapalli where also run over by the enemy forces after two months of resistance which led to the capture of the Queen as well. Gajapati General Sirsa Chandra Mohapatra, commander Prahareswara patra and Muslim detachment general Bijli khan were also captured along with other nobles.

Though his family members were held captive, Prataprudra didn’t make any attempts of peace and prepared for a major confrontation at Kalingapatnam. Krishna Deva decided to halt his progress further and moved to conquer Telangana and Vengi that was Gajapati territory routing the remaining and cut off Odia forces deployed there. Forts like Anantagiri, Nalagonda. Kambhammettu ,Undrakonda, Urlagonda, etc where captured successively. Timma Raju advised Krishna Deva to stop further advance into the Odia homeland as their fighting capability was intact and becoming more stubborn after every defeat. Skeptical Krishna Deva Raya wanted to put his doubts to a test.

Hell Breaks Loose on Vijayanagara Forces at the Eastern Ghats Passes

Krishna Deva Raya orders a large section of the his forces to march to Simhadri through the Eastern Ghats passes of Rajmahendri. Simhadri was a major sit of administration of Odia kingdom’s administrative division of Odadi Dandapat/Mandala. The Gajapati general deployed on the front line was Sitapati or Sitaph Khan who was formerly the governor in charge of the major forts of Warangal, Bellam konda and Khambam Mettu in the Telegana region. He was renounced to be a physically strong man followed by 12,000 infantry of Paikas who were also known to be excellent marksmen. Sitapati also had retreated from Telegana saving the manpower for an ultimate clash with the enemy. When the Vijayanagara army marched into the hilly regions of the Eastern Ghats on their way to Simhadri, Sitapati was waiting with an army of Paikas constituting 60,000 horse mounted archers in the mountainous passes. Obstructing the enemy’s progress into Odisha, 60,000 arrows rained down on the Vijayanagara forces at a time on each command. The deadly attack trapped the enemy forces in the hilly passes giving them extreme losses. The Vijayanagara army started retreating in haste facing the well planned attack. Krishna Deva with the help of his spy network scaled the region more effectively and launched a sneak attack from the flanks of the defending Odia forces. The ferocity of the battle and good deal of fight given by the Stubborn Odias can be guessed from the documents clarifying the death of 23,000 archers and 4000 horses in the Odia army. Sitapati had to surrender but the increasing ferocity by Odias into each move towards their territory did confirm the warning of Timma Raju for Krishna Deva.

Vijayanagara's Strategy of Bheda

The Gajapati tactfully shifted his regional headquarters of Oddadi Mandala to Kalingapatnam from Simhadri avoiding instant clash with the enemy. Prataprudra Deva was carefully planning for a head on fight with the Vijayanagara forces at Kalingapatnam with his sixteen Patras(advisors) assembled together. The intended plans of the Odia side were leaked through spies to Krishna Deva. Witnessing the fierce resistance at Rajmahendri, Timma Raju advised him to implement the strategy of Bheda on the Gajapati instead of risking back breaking losses in a head on fight. Special dispatches of sixteen boxes filled with gold and valuables were sent out as bribe to the sixteen Patras with the intention to be somehow be captured by Gajapati himself. Along with each dispatch a letter was sent which demanded the surrender of the Gajapati to the Vijayanagara forces while pretending to be fighting from his side. It also promised them re appointments and more rewards if the Patras complied. Reading the contents of the letters, the Gajapati had a very genuine reason to suspect the loyalty of his generals as he had witnessed a similar treachery on the northern frontier with Bengal earlier. Under the possible circumstance of his capture, Odisha would have had to surrender completely despite the availability of vast resources to continue the war. Prataprudra Deva retreated in a hurry to avoid any such possibility for the sake of his future fighting capability against the enemy.  After the Gajapati left, Krishna Deva leaves a detachment of 30,000 soldiers at Rajmahendri to guard his flanks and marched into Simhadri where the royal Gajapati mansion was taken over after the bell metal doors were broken with the help of elephants amidst the continuing resistance by the Odia army. He appoints his own close followers to guard the mansion and expecting no further moves from the Gajapati, returns to Vijayanagara to check incursions in his northern frontiers. 

Captive Crown Prince of Odisha Commits Suicide for Honor

The accounts of the Portuguese Fernao Nunes say, since his capture the gallant crown prince of Odisha Virabhadra was noticed to be very active and a dexterous swordsman. Krishna Deva Raya with the intent to break his pride and honor, asks him to display his ability as a swordsman in front of the courtiers. Being a Kshyatriya (warrior class), he complies. Belonging to a noble family he was expecting to face an opponent from a noble family as well. But Krishna Deva brought forth a common soldier who also happened to be a master swordsman and was involved in training his army. Seeing an opponent from the common class, the noble Virabhadra felt insulted to the core of his heart as he was living under the guilt of losing to the enemy at Kondavidu and being taken captive. Virabhadra slit his own throat with the sword before the fight could begin crying out loud “God forbid, I come from a noble ruling class. I will never display my martial skills against an opponent from a common background”. This incident also throws light on the threatening of torture and death given by Krishna Deva Raya to Virabhadara if he didn’t fight as he could have simply declined the fight instead of committing suicide. He chose to die with his own hands rather than be tortured by his captivators.

Spies Report the Intact Fighting Capabilities of Odisha

Hearing about the fate of his son Prataprudra Deva was broken but didn’t give up. The standoff continued on the frontiers of Simhadri, but he never attempted to make peace with Vijayanagara. He was more prepared to defend his kingdom in case there is further invasion from the enemy. Krishna Deva was now facing more organized and aggressive Muslim invaders from the new Golconda Empire. Having wounded the Odia pride in the ongoing war and the personal honor of the Gajapati he was also sensing more possible ferocious retaliation from the Odia army in case he made further moves into the Odia domain from Simhadri. Vijayanagara’s spy network confirmed his doubts through the reports presented before him at Vijayanagara. The words from the spies to him at Vijayanagara confirmed that Odisha was still ready to fight and the Odia army couldn’t be challenged in the battle field if he entered into their domain. Few accounts collected shed light on the spy reports as below.

“The Gajapati king gets up from bed early in the morning two hours before sunrise and salutes two Brahmins before looking at any other person. Then accompanied by the Sixteen Patras [the Brahminical council], he goes on a ride of about twenty or thirty miles before returning to the palace. After taking his bath, he engages himself in the daily worship of Lord Jagannath, after which he takes his midday meal. After food, he recites the Ramayana. Then, putting on official robes bedecked with jewels, he sits in the court and transacts his daily business.

We entered the city of Cuttack and saw the palace of Gajapati, the mansions of the sixteen Patras, the gymnasium and the people who take exercises there in. Even the gods and the demons are not capable of exhibiting such skills in physical exercises as they show. Your majesty might have observed the skill in physical exercises shown by the great wrestlers of the Gajapati is totally different. They alone are capable of lifting up such heavy dumbbell. They lift up and what is more they lift them up cross wise. They raise a sack weighing 10 paddes to the height of the uplifted arm of standing man and throw upon it upon their own bodies.  Moreover they catch the sack between their thighs and suspended themselves in the air, taking hold of the crossbeam. The reason for taking this exercise is this; while engaged in battles the troopers are accustomed to carry their opponents bodily, imprisoning them between one of their arms and the body, if however the opponents fight without losing their hold on their steeds they abandon their attempt considering the opponent to be unmanageable. The riders are armored horses are not afraid of any wound which they might receive. They attempt to carry away under their arm such riders. The soldiers practice their exercises in order to remain firm courageously on such occasions. They completely demolish walls of hundred feet with arummi mattakhandam which is heavy enough to be carried by a man on his head. They cut with swords tamarind pillars as early as they cut the pitch of plantation trees planting two crow-bars together on the ground they cut them to pieces with their swords. They bring basketful of cymbal discs and twist four or five of them together. As the blacksmith are not able to separate them, they place on the anvil and detach them with the aid of a hammer and bring them again in good condition for the next day’s use. More over they break iron clubs at any given points. The wrestlers of the country who go there return with a feeling that it is not possible for them to cope with their methods of taking exercise. The wealth and strength of that place cannot be seen anywhere.”

The Peace Offer and the Moderate Gesture of Vijayanagara

By the time the hostilities were still on, the former Bahamani Sultanate had broken into four new hostile Muslim states on Vijayanagara’s borders. Another new empire of Golconda was making preparations for war on the lines of modernization of military during the initial years of Krishna Deva. Learning about the intact fighting potential of Odisha, Krishna Deva understood that his victory march will be turned into regrettable losses if the war continued with Odisha. Being a Hindu king Krishna Deva had violated the ethics of war by keeping the Odisha queen in captivity along with other family members of the Gajapati. This proved to be his ultimate bargaining chip to compel Prataprudra Deva to settle upon peace process. But the return of family members would not have guaranteed his withdrawal from war while Krishna Deva took on the Muslim kingdoms at Raichur. He would not have been able to make war on two fronts simultaneously like the mighty Odisha which was warring with three hostile neighbors at the same time and still holding on strong. As advised by Timma Raju the only way to keep the Gajapati behind his lines was to offer him certain portions of the occupied territories and enter into marriage relation with his family.  Moderate messages offering peace were sent to the Gajapati which contained all the terms that Vijayanagara was prepared to comply with if Odisha promised peace. Assuming that Odisha lost to Vijayanagara would be an inappropriate conclusion as peace offers with return of controlled territories should always be made by the losing side and not the victors. Some terms of the peace offer were as mentioned below.

·        Return of the royal family members, captured nobles and generals to the Gajapati.

·        Return of territories north of Krishna River to Odisha.

·        Marriage with the Gajapati’s daughter Jaganmohini.

·        No collaboration with the hostile Muslim States while Vijayanagara indulged with them and abstention from war.

At the cost of aggressor offering all the captured territories and family members, Gajapati also decided to secure his southern frontiers as he was also facing direct invasion from the Muslim ruler of Bengal. The daughter of Prataprudra Deva was married off with Krishna Deva. The marriage which is mentioned in Rayavachakamu , Krishna-faya-vijayam and lamil-Navalar-Charifai was based on a political decision and not human bonding. The Odisha princess was abandoned by Krishna Deva and led a life of seclusion at Khambam in Cuddapa district for the rest of her days.  

Conclusion

Vijayanagara gained territories up until Krishna River and the northern portions were handed back to the Gajapati. Odisha never lost the war and Prataprudra Deva proved to be able defender of Odisha under the circumstances of all out war at all his frontiers. Krishna Deva’s fear of loss and Odisha’s intact fighting capabilities were proven by the further battles with the Muslim state of Golconda in the southern frontiers and the invasion into Vijayanagara territory after his death in 1529 A.D. The below image  is of the copper plate grants made by Prataprudra Deva in the southern territories of today’s Andhra after the death of Krishna Deva Raya proves that Odias were ferocious fighters, continuously fought on  and never accepted defeat.

Detailed Article Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak

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