Ancient Odisha was an Overseas Colonizer Besides Being a Seafaring Trading Giant in South Asia.

Words like Bali Jatra, Boita Bandana and Karthika Punei are irreversibly marked as the day to memorize the ancient glorious past of Odisha. Apparently, it is a marker for the glorious ancient maritime trade activities of Odisha, but today I have a question to all the scholars and historians of the state of Odisha, Was the ancient Kalinga only maritime trading nation or it was also a overseas colonizer and a naval military hub ? There is no doubt that ancient Kalinga was a pioneer of overseas trade in the eastern coast of India for thousands of years but the question is without a established naval might how can an ancient kingdom indulge in huge trade with other beyond the high seas and far away kingdoms. There was no international laws safeguarding the cause of traders crossing the seas into foreign lands and no modern era trade agreements signed between governing authorities of the trading kingdoms. Then how was it possible that the ancient Kalingans traded without military support in the pirate infested and hostile environments of the seas? The answer is Kalinga was also a naval superpower in the region with regular military activities in the Mahodadhi (or Bay of Bengal).

I will note down a few proofs one by one on this claim that quite definitely dictates that ancient Kalinga was a naval superpower with the adjoining Kalinga Sagar or Mahodadhi being a hive of military activities from it. Though much research has not been done in this regard to highlight the claim, I have tried to study various documents that provide clear cut indicators to ancient Odisha being a Naval super power in South Asia.

Ancient Odisha’s Knowledge of Ship Building and the forces in the High Seas.

The 4^th Century Chinese traveler Fahien notes Kalinga possessed many ships with some of them having high sails and masts capable of carrying 200 people over the seas. A small trailing boat was attached to the main boat which could be used as a life boat in case there was any accident on the main boat. Also, the 11^th Century documentation of King Bhoja of Dhara called Yukti Kalpataru describes that the Kalingans divided there seas going vessels  in the two kinds; Visesha (Special class) and Samanya (Ordinary). This emphasizes that ancient Odisha possessed a large number of ships. The ship types were noted as Tarikah. Plavah, Bariratha, Tarandhuh, Bhelaka, Nuah, Bahana,etc. Historian R.D. Banarjee states that Kalinga possessed a naval force to protect and escort the trading vessels on the seas that traveled to other provinces with many goods which also included huge animals like Elephants. Zhu fan zhi of China’s Song Dynasty mention of the extensive secure trading networks of the Kia-ling ships or Kalinga ships in early 13^th Century notes called “Records of the Foreign People”. A chapter in the 16^th Century Document called Paika Kheda mentions the various types of vessels used for naval activities on the Odishan Coast. These ships were named as Chaturi, Lanjua, Rajpura, Nandia, etc. 

The Kalingan seamen had a sound knowledge of navigation on the seas with the help special instruments along with astronomical locations of the stars and the Sun in the sky. Ships carried tamed birds called Disa Kaka on-board to indicate the direction on land. The wind over the Mahodadhi (Bay of Bengal) is a phenomenal force that was a deciding factor that facilitated the journey as well as possessed a threat to turbulent waters in the middle of the seas if not studied properly. The seasonally reversing winds are almost consistent during the monsoon period. However, weather disturbances occur during the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon time. During such disturbances, sailors avoided venturing into the sea.

The Chinese traveler and monk Yijing (AD 635 -713) noted down that it was 30 days sail from Tamarlipti (an ancient port of Kalinga now Tamluk in West Bengal) to Andaman Nicobar islands and it took another 20 days only to travel the rest of majority distance to China. He also states that it took three months to sail from Sri Lanka to Java Island including the stoppages for repairs to the ships on the way at Sri Vijaya. This gives an instance about how difficult and back breaking task it was to sail across the Mahodadhi compared to rest of the seas around it. He also mentioned that Odishan Ships passed through the Andaman Nicobar Islands which probably was used as midway supply stoppage for the sailors.

Overseas Contacts, Colonization and Invasions

The 5^th Century poet Kalidasa described the king of Kalinga as Mahodadhipati which means the lord of Mahodadhi (eastern seas) in his epic Raghuvansam. This term defines the totalitarian control of the trade routes and other seafaring activities of Kalinga over the seas.  The 6th century Manjusrimulakalpa mentions the Bay of Bengal as Kalingodra (Kalinga Sea) which defines the complete maritime dominance of the eastern seas by ancient Odisha.    In fact it is assumed that the Kalingan ports were a major reason that prompted the Mauryan Ashoka to invade it. Moreover, the Kalingan Emperor Kharavela had defeated the Draviain Tamil confederacy of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputra, and Tamraparni (Sri Lanka) in his sway of conquests particularly in the period when these states where at the height of their maritime activities. It is hard to believe that this could have been only made possible with inland warfare. This definitely points to the existence of a naval force with ancient Kalinga. In the Tang Dynasty records it is mentioned that the a Bhaumakara prince by the name Subhakara Simha identified as Subhakara Deva carried with him many Buddhist Mahayana Tantric scrolls and texts in 790 A.D to the Tang Dynasty court of China via  the seas as gesture of friendship. It is of no doubt that Royalties sailed from Odisha to far away nations like China and it would be foolish to assume that there were no military escorts in foreign waters for them in such a long voyage.

In Sri Lanka or Sinhala

According to a legend in Sri Lanka, Sinhabahu or Sīhabāhu ("Lion-arms"), was the son of a princess of the Kalinga Kingdom and a lion. He killed his father and became king of Singhapur of Kalinga (near Jajpur of Odisha). His son, Prince Vijaya, would emigrate from Kalinga to Lanka and become the progenitor of the Sinhala people from 543 BC – 505 BC. This suggests that the race of Sinhala people started from the ancient Kalingans. A Kingdom called Tambapanni or Tamraparni was founded by Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers after landing on the island. It is recorded the Vijaya landed on Sri lanka on the day of Buddha's death. Vijaya claimed Tambapanni his capital and soon the whole island came under this name.  In the 3^rd century B.C it is prominently noted by the king Ashoka that he sent his daughter Sangamitra along with eight noble families from Kalinga and a branch of the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka for preaching Buddhism.

In another instance, the Dathavamsa scriptures of Sri Lanka and other Buddhist scriptures like Mahaparinibbana Sutta of Digha Nikaya state that in the early 4rth Century A.D. the king Guhasiva of Kalinga who was a devout worshipper of this tooth-relic instructed his daughter Hemamali, the princess of Kalinga and his son in law prince Dantha of Ujjain to escort the priceless relic to safety as the the land of Kalinga was facing an invasion at that time from the neighboring king Khiradhara. They landed in the island in Lankapattana during the reign of Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura (301-328 A.D) and handed over the tooth relic which the princess was carrying hidden in her hair. This tooth Relic is still worshipped in the city of Kandy. This indicates that the relations between these two kingdoms were a regular affair in those days. 

The later phase of 12^th Century A.D saw the rise of a Kalingan ruling family in Sri Lanka by a prince of Kalinga’s Ishvaku clan based at the capital Sinhapura in ancient Odisha. His name was Nissanka Malla and he was popularly known as Kirti Nissanka and Kalinga Lokeswara in Srilanka. He had ascended the throne by murdering the earlier king in 1187 A.D and claimed descent to the ancient Kalingan prince Viajaya. He invaded the Pandyan and Chola territories and renamed the captured Rameswaram temple as Nissankeswara. He was succeeded by his son, brothers, nephew and wife for the span of another three decades of strong rule on the island.

It was not until a Tamil Pandyan king named Parakrama Pandya took over the Kalingan descendents of Nissanka Malla for three years on the island that a major event in Sri Lankan history was again influenced by a prince from Kalinga called Kalinga Magha in 1215 A.D. Kalinga Magha with the help of his friend Gajabahu assembled an army of 24,000 men and invaded the island from Indian mainland. The prince ruled the island for 21 years until he was actually overthrown and abdicated from the land by a local resistance leader called Vijayabahu. The Sri Lankan texts mention him as Kalinga Magharaja. All these events simply dictate the military and expansionist campaigns launched from the soil of ancient Kalinga on the island of Sri Lanka surpassing the Tamil Cholas and Pandyans. All the rulers of Jaffna kingdom in northern Sri Lanka claimed their descent from Kalingai Chakrabarty who was later identified as the Odia prince Kalinga Magha. The details regarding these events prove that the ancient Odisha was capable of amphibious naval warfare that required carrying troops across the seas and landing them in enemy territory.

One can even compare the scripts on Sinhalese and Odia language to a great extent. Remarkably, the similarities of these scripts are compelling enough to indicate the cultural ties with this island nation of Odisha. In an extensive view point we do not find this much available similarities of the Sinhalese script with the nearest neighbor to them i.e. Tamil script.

In Burma or Suvarnabhumi

Another colonial settlement of ancient Odisha was the land of Burma or Myanmar. Around the 7th Century A.D this land was known as Kalingarat or Kalinga Rashtra and the people where known Kalinga due to the settlers and colonists from Kalinga. Similarly, the north-western part of Burma, the region extending from Rangoon to Tante (Pegu) was known as Ukkala or Utkalapa; a variant of  the term Utkala (Odisha). According to historian R.C.Majumdar the name Utkala originally applied to a region in the delta in lower Burma by the colonists from the Odisha coast. Hindu religion was established by Kalingans in Burma and according to scholar B.C Majumdar, the ancient Odishan Empire was established in Myanmar hundreds of years before the birth of Buddhism.

When it comes to planting the seeds of Buddhism, Buddhist texts mention that the first two disciples of Buddha, Tapasu and Bahalika (two tradesmen from Kalinga) carried 8 hair strands from him and went to Burma known as Suvarnabhumi at the time. The lower part of Burma was also known as Tri Kalinga imitating the Tri Kalinga kingdom of Odisha. The people of Burma’s Mon region are still known as Tailangs which is derived from the same. The Buddhagat sacred scripture of Burma, describes trade with the Buddhist merchants of Kalinga, leading to missionaries coming to propagate the faith, and then to political domination of parts of coastal Burma by Kalinga during the 4th to 7th centuries AD. Coins with Hindu symbols found in Pegu confirm this contact. Greek historian, Ptolemy has referred to a direct route from Paloura (Palur) to Sada which was frequently used by the Kalingans in course of their journey to Burma. Sada was the first port touched at in Ptolemy’s time by ships proceeding from India to the eastern coast of the Kalinga Sagar. The most interesting part is that the ancient name attributed to old city Prome is Srikshetra, so often mentioned in the Mon records as Sikset or Srikset, and by the Chinese pilgrims as Sili-cha-ta-lo. Srikshetra is the holy land of Puri on the ancient Kalinga coast. Another name to a city in north of Srikset is called as Beikthano or Baikuntha.

Shailodbhavas of Odisha re-emerged in Indonesia’s Sumatra Island as Shailendra Dynasty

The Scholar R.C.Majumdar states that  Shailendra dynasty originated from east Indian kingdom of Kalinga were the Shailodbhava dynasty used rule before the rise of Bhaumakara Dynasty in the 6^th and 7^th century. Later they moved to Java Island facing threats from invading forces. They migrated from the port of Palur in the Kalingan coast. The Shailodbhavas were primarily centered in the Kangoda mandal region of Kalinga particularly in the adjoining areas of river Salima which is now known as Sali. The Shailendras later built great Buddhist monuments in the Indonesian archipelago and the later towards the end of 8^th century the rulers of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Bali, parts of Cambodia and Malaya aligned with them. This claim is strengthened by the documents from history of China’s Tang Dynasty concerning the Ho-ling or Kalinga kingdom of Java when it was being ruled by the Sailendra Queen Shimha or noted as His-mo in Chinese.

The great grandson of queen Shima called Sanjaya later founded the Sunda, Galuh and Medang kingdoms in the same island. A legend of Java states that 20,000 Kalingan families were sent from Odisha coast by a Kalingan prince who later prospered, populated the island and established this Kalinga kingdom in central Java after the rise of a ruler called Kano. The Brahmin founder of the Khmer empire reputed for its largest temple complex at Angkor Wat, Jayavarman II was a courtier in this Shailendra dynasty of Java and imported Indian terms like Devaraja and Chakravartin for himself. The basic architectural similarities between the temples of Odisha and of Khmer Empire are astonishingly similar. Other glorious Hindu kingdoms like Kediri, Singhasari, Majapahit and Blambangan flourished in this island on the foundation stone laid by the Shailendras.

Another interesting field of study in ancient Kalinga’s maritime glory is the island of Bali which has successfully preserved its Hindu culture in a now completely converted to Islam, Indonesia. One would be surprised to see the similarities in the cultures shared by both Odisha and Bali. The Brahmin priests in Odisha are known as Panda whereas in Bali they are called as Padanda. Words like Guah (beetle nut), Muah (face), Sanja (evening), Bali (Sand or the name of an ancestral king) and Ruti (bread) are the same as spoken in both the places. Remarkably, the river Mahanadi and Mahendra Tanya including the holy mountain Mahendragiri of South Odisha are mentioned with high esteem in the holy chanting during the Puja Stuti of the Island. The dance forms of Bali like Kecak and Barong are similar to Paika and tribal dance forms of Odisha. Besides the other trends of cultural similarity, there is a tradition called Ngaben cremation ceremony which is similar to Karthik Purnima’s Boita Bandana tradition of Odisha. The people float small boats to wish the soul of the deceased a happy journey to the afterlife in the original homeland of Kalinga. In ancient Odisha people did it to mark the prayers for the safe return of their kin from overseas trade. Today we do it to celebrate and pray as a part of our glorious seafaring past. No wonder the Bali Jatra (Bali Fair) begins in Odisha in the same time which must have been initiated to trade and showcase the items from Bali Island by the Sadhavas of ancient Odisha.

The Case of Kawi or Old Javanese Script

Kawi literally means poet in India. It is the language based on theater and literature of old Javanese language. Indian Sanskrit and old Javanese established a connection via the trader of ancient Odisha or Kalinga. The Kakawin form of this language is a middle standard between old Javanese and Kawi. The Kakawin depicts narratives of Hindu Mythology in context of the social life in Indonesian archipelago. The poets of Kakawin composed and performed in the court of Javanese Kalinga and Kediri in east Java in the 9^th Century. Some Odia words comparable to Kakawin language that was inherited in Bali are like Aswalalita, Basanta, Mredu Komala, Swan Devi, Wikridita, etc.

The story of Bima Kumara (or Bhima Kumara) in the Kakawin Virataparwa Hindu epic mentions that a 6^th century Kalingan king from Odisha called Sridharmavansha Teggu Anantavikrama Tuggadeva that ruled the Kediri kingdom of Java sponsored the Kakawin translation of Hindu epics like Mahasang Katha Ramayana Charita and Mangjawaken Bysamata from Sanskrit to old Javanese. Moreover, if today we compare the scripts of Odia and Kawi the results will astonish us. But to the heights of disgust, Tamil scholars have propagated that Kawi script was derived from the Tamil Pallava script and sadly no one puts a question mark on this from Odisha.

Coastal Defense, Sea Battles and Naval Hub in Odisha

There is a place called Nausena (navy) near the Chilika Lake in Odisha. This provides us the pointer to the existence of naval force stationed in the region in the past. Considering the ship building knowledge and involvement in the regular highly prosperous trade activities of ancient Odisha, the subsequent rulers could not have ensured this high level of economic activities without the existence of a naval force. The kings of the feudal states of ancient Odisha in the river delta regions of the coast were given the annotations and rank like Muhana Kimbhira or Muhana Chaukia. There responsibility was to protect the main heartland of ancient Kalinga from attacks by foreign forces and pirates in the sea. In order to assist the prime ruler of Kalinga in naval conflicts, these feudal rulers used to provide them with Paikas (fighting militia) and boats. It is said that there were fifty such feudal rulers of ancient Kalinga when the Mughals and Marathas took over the Odisha in the 16^th Century. The rulers of Kanika, Kujanga, Ali, Harishpur, Marichpur and Golra had received these titles as Muhana Kimbhira.

Hero stones from 7^th to 9^th Century remembering the brave hearts of the sea battle was located in Kanas near Chilika along with stone anchors of ancient ships. But without much research data and evidence collected so far the unspoken story of these heroes is still a mystery. Wide range of research is actually required to trace the truth of the naval activities in the coast of ancient Odisha.

Conclusion 

I hope my research leads me to further in depth findings of the glorious past of maritime seafaring Odisha. It is of no wonder that Indians are known to the Indonesians and Malaysians as Orang Keling or the people from Kalinga. Kalinga (ancient Odisha) was the ideal land of their dreams from which theirs and our ancestors left out to colonize the South East Asia and dictate totalitarian socio-cultural influence over the lands beyond the high seas. Ancient Odisha was the cradle of the modern South East Asian nations. Far before the Cholas, other Dravidians or the Bengalis, Mahodadhi (Bay of Bengal) was the playground of our intellectual, fearless and prosperous ancestors. It is hard to imagine the existence of the modern South East Asian and South Asian nations in their current forms if the seafaring Odias would not have decided to cross the seas and venture into the unknown with their cultural and traditional background.  

Research Document Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak
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Goswamini Mahadevi or Tribhubana Mahadevi – I; the Bhauma Kara Empress, who ascended the Throne of Odisha like a Katayayani (Warrior Goddess).

Odisha has been a land of emperors and conquerors but a few is celebrated in popular culture about the Bhaumakar dynasty’s powerful empresses. This dynasty that lasted from 736 A.D to 950 A.D saw a line of six female rulers that ruled the kingdom of ancient Kalinga with a firm grip despite the presence of male heirs. This era saw political and military power of the state being vibrantly managed by the female rulers and wives of feudatories. The Kalika Purana written about the same time, mentions Uddiyana or Odra Desa as the seat of Goddess Katayayani and lord Jagannath. Other prominent documents of Shakti cult like Brahmayamala Tantra dedicate a hymn “Aadya Stotra” to goddess Shakti which dictates that Vimala of Puri and Viraja (Girija) were the respective goddesses of Utkala Kingdom. The Tantra Chudamani enlightens the Utkala Kingdom to be one of the major Shakti shrines where the navel of the goddess landed and the exact location is described to be the Vaitarani River’s Oddiyana Shrine which is Viraja or Girija Khsetra. Overall the era of the Bhaumakar Dynasty saw the great uplift of female social status and the religious alignment of this social process was clearly visible in the documents of the time.

                           

Fig - Astabhuja Durga in the Vaital Deula built by Goswamini Mahadevi

Traditionally the Bhaumakara dynasty established by Kshemakara Deva, was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism and tantric Buddhism. The Dynasty’s patronage towards Shaktism, Shavism and Vaisnavism had a phenomenal growth after the ascent of female rulers. Jainism also flourished in the Prachi Valley and Podasingidi of Keonjhar district during this period. The Vajrayana Buddhism or Tantric cult of Buddhism centered in Odisha in the 7^th Century A.D under the protection of Bhaumakara Kings  including the founder Kshemakara Deva who had assumed Buddhist titles like Paramopasaka, Paramatathagata and Parama Saugata, etc. The Bhaumakara kings and queens donated lands for the Siva temples and Saivism flourished with Vaisnavism as its cult. However, the most astonishing fact of this era was the flourishing Hindu Shakti cult that was centered on the capital region of the Bhaumakars i.e. Jajpur. The image of Durga became eight-armed or Astabhuja. Eventually, this image became ten-armed towards the later part of the Bhaumakar dynasty. The ten armed or Dasabhuja Durga was depicted at that time as the war Goddess armed with the weapons of different Gods. This change was a significant reflection of women at the top in the administrative positions including the lordship of the empire towards the later part of the Bhaumakar dynasty when one after the other Queens started taking the control of the Throne.

      Fig - Rare Buddhist Idol of Bahumakar period excavated from Kendrapada

Goswamini Mahadevi was the first eligible empress of the Bhaumakar Dynasty who had been invited by a few feudatory rulers to ascend the throne after the political order in the kingdom had collapsed under repeated invasions from Palas and Rashtrakutas. She was the wife of the former king Shantikara Deva I and was the princess of Mysore’s king Rajamalla I. The feudatory rulers had indulged into civil war after the collapse of political order facing the external invasions. Goswamini Mahadevi has credited her father Rajamalla I to have vanished the invaders from her Odisha and re-establishing her husband as the emperor. She had bypassed the earlier king’s son, let her son rule after her husband and herself ascended the throne in the year 843 A.D after his death and as her grandson; the heir to the throne was still a child. She was in complete control of the kingdom and proved to be an intelligent and worthy ruler with a strong grip of control on the kingdom. Persian visitors and writers of the time have documented that she assumed the title of Katayani Tribhubana Mahadevi and ascended the throne with a strong Charisma.

The word Katayani means goddess of war and Odisha at the time known as Odra Desa was considered to be the deity’s shrine. This indicates the power that she enjoyed assuming the kingdom’s head deity’s name to justify her rule. Persian writers mentioned that she ensured that peace and prosperity lasted and the war ravaged kingdom returned to former glory with stability. She maintained an army of 3,00,000 soldiers and the feudal rulers bowed in front of her touching their foreheads on her feet as a supreme gesture of total submission and abstention from revolt against her supreme authority. It is an extremely rare phenomenon in the history of India were amongst a few mentioned female rulers, a remarkable woman like Goswamini Mahadevi I was commanding such a large army capable of carving out empires.

Fig - Vaital Deula built by Goswamini Mahadevi 

She was a Vaishnavite in faith but showed great interest in nursing other belief systems in her kingdom. She constructed the famous and uniquely built Khakhara style Vaitala deula (Temple) with the fierce tantric cult goddess Chamunda as the central deity. The Sakti worshipers of the Bhaumakar period visualized the concept of worshiping the seven mother Goddesses called Saptamatruka (Varahi, Indrani, Vaishnavi, Kaumari, Sivani, Brahmi and Chamunda). The idea of Human and animal sacrifice was common in this era.

Conclusion

Goswamini Mahadevi or Katayayani Tribhubana Mahadevi I abdicated the throne in 861 A.D after 18 years of successful rule in favor of her grandson Subhakara Deva II, who had grown to the eligible age mark to rule the kingdom. The story of her inspirational life is in shreds due to lack of proper research but it is amazing to think of a great personality like her could rule a powerful empire on her own will with a firm grip. We must not forget that it was not until the early 18^th and 19^th Century that the derogatory male dominant Indian society was suppressing women with self immolation ritual of sati and forcing them to stay behind the Purdah or home walls.  But there was a woman in Odisha nearly a thousand years back prior to all this who was feared, respected and bowed before by the most powerful warlords, feudal chiefs and enemies of her kingdom. She paved the tradition of female rulers in the dynasty and was followed by another line of six female rulers unlike any dynasty in any region of India or Asia. A remarkable feat that Odisha achieved at least a thousand years before even when the most modern nation like the United States was arguing over women rights to vote.

The state of Odisha was formed/created/ established/ founded in 1936?

Almost all people in Odisha are aware that the state of Odisha was officially reorganized in April 1^st 1936 as the first linguistic based state of India along with the province of Sindh. However, there is a collective blunder by the scholars of Odisha in describing this event as if it was the birth of the state. In fact Odisha was always existent in the history vibrantly until its downfall caused by Islamic Invaders from Bengal. Odisha was dismembered, politically tampered with and heinous efforts were made to wash out the Odia identity with the help of planned cultural sabotage. For example the Bengal bureaucratic groups tried to impose the Bengali script as they had done it successfully in Assam and in the former core Odishan territory of Jaleshwar Sarkar that comprises at least 30-40% of total territory of modern West Bengal and some parts of Jharkhand.  Marathi political influence on the Tribal highlands of Western and Southern Odisha (Tri Kalinga region) in sync with the 36 Garh or 36 forts and Chota Nagpur region was not enough while Hindi was being forcibly imposed as an Official language. This ultimately resulted in the first popular Odia language moment in Sambalpur region in 1905 to reinstate Odia as the official language though the people were still to remain divided for another 31 years.

The expressions in various research, educational and government documents over the internet and other available study materials thoughtlessly dictate that the state was formed or founded in the year 1936. The terms like Odra Bishaya, Odra Desa, Oddiyana, etc are mentioned in a clear cut manner in the various ancient documents. The Suryavanshi emperor Kapilendra Deva Routray of the 15^th Century was the first to declare his kingdom prominently as “Odisha Rajya“ or the kingdom of Odisha  which  is evident from his land grants issued during his rule. The existence of the term Odisha or its previous terms like Odra Bishaya, Odra Desa, etc. can be traced back into thousands of years of history with the alongside existence of contemporary names like Kalinga, Kangoda, Utkala, etc. Mythology speaks about the sons of the blind sage Dirghatamas as Kalinga, Pundra, Sumha, Banga, Anga and the later born youngest son as Odra. All these names are the simultaneous names of kingdoms as well as the princes of the undivided mythological Anava Empire in eastern India ruling it in parts after the death of their non biological father Bali.  So Odisha was not formed, created or founded by anyone on 1^st April 1936, it was partially amalgamated, reorganized or reconstituted with majority of its ancient territories still under the rule of non Odia states.

Odisha might have been dismembered, plundered and captured by foreign forces after the 16^th Century till the year 1936 but the consciousness of being an Odia was never eradicated despite all the best efforts by the conspirators. Our glorious past echoed through the centuries of blunder by foreign rulers and we decided to stand back on our feet following the guidelines of the Ganga Vanshis and the Surya Vanshis. The modern state of Odisha is a result of collective efforts based on patriotic consciousness of the ancient people who were famous across the world as Kalinga, Odra, Kangoda, etc. So let’s not downplay our own past glory by using the terms like formed/created/ established/ founded in 1936 for the state's official reorganization under modern standards and constitutional system.

Document Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak
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Satrubhanja, the Naga Emperor from Northern Odisha

The name ‘Bhanja’ itself has been deeply rooted to the northern and western Odisha region for centuries. So far the history of the early Bhanjas has been a mystery as not much research has been done in this field. The history of Odisha from the 3^rd century to 6^th century A.D. was considered to be in darkness as all most all attention was laid on the prior topics of emperor Kharavela and Kalinga war. Only after enough research was conducted on the Sitabhinj’si Ravanchaya inscriptions and with the discovery of the Satrubhnaja inscription from the vicinity of the Asanpat village in Keonjhar district, historians have begun to draw light on the glorious past of the Odias in this Dark Age. 

Myth logically, the Ravanchaya rock at Sitabhinji is believed to be the place where Sita took exile. The river situated within the range of 100 yards is also named as Sita. Pre-historic implements and tools have been discovered in abundance in this area. However, the most interesting discovery is the 3^rd or 4^th Century rock painting of a royal procession of the king Disabhanja riding an elephant with followers and attendants which throws a light on the dominance of the Bhanja dynasty in the highland areas of Odisha. Historians have continuously credited the mysterious Bhanja dynasty of this era for the cultural uplift of the tribal hinterlands and mountainous areas of Odisha due to evidences collected so far. Though the final domain of the Bhanjas was limited to Mayurbhanj district and other parts of the northern Odisha including the domain of the Mayura dynasty of Sundergarh area, the discovery of the Asanpat inscription has revealed the achievements and conquests of a powerful warlord called Satrubhanja.

     

The recreated Ravanachaya rock painting at Sitabhinji of the king Disabhanja and his Royal procession

Logically the word ‘warlord’ does not fit in with his achievements, it is obligatory because of his dynastical identity. In actual terms Satrubhanja belonged to the Naga clan of the Vindhya mountain range (the middle region of India from the west to the east coast). The Asanpat inscription which is issued under a stone carved image of the dancing Nataraja (Siva) glorifies the family line being devout Shaivites and traditionally patrons of warfare and cultural activities. Nagas were the rulers of different parts of Vindhya Range under different family names. The administration of the Indian subcontinent was dictated by the powerful Kushanas and Murundas from Pataliputra.  Combinedly known as the Devaputras there origin was foreign as the Kushanas where the invaders from the Central Asia region who had eventually established a firm grip on India. The Nagas of Keonjhar (Vindhyatabi) and the Bharashiva Nagas of Central India joined hands to overthrow the Kushana rule from India under the leadership of Satrubhnaja. 

                        

                 

                                   Asanpat Inscription of Satrubhanja

What does the Asanpat Inscription say?

This thirteen line Sanskrit inscription provides a clear cut description about the life of Satrubhanja.

 

Birth, lineage and Success as a Warrior

He is described to be born to the Naga clan as the moon among kings and as the illustrious Ranaslaghin of the family. He is also described as the Devaputra or the divine child born to a family whose fame would last till the end of the Kali yuga. This description verifies the top position of his family amongst the entire ruling Naga clans and the adjoining dynasties along with possibility of him being the crown prince who is expected to win battles in the future with the enemies. He is stated to be the ruling king and the lord of Vindhyatabi (the forest kingdom in the Vindhya Range), the son of Maharaja Manabhanja born to the queen Mahadevi Damayanti. His success as a warrior is defined by the statement that his valour is unchecked and unchallenged even after hundreds of battles (possibly with the traditional enemies, the Kushanas and Murundas of North India). He is described to be the Kalpavriksha (with the sense of being holy and not being deviated yet) and having the quality of good wealth on earth that was like the sun having mass splendor on earth

His Knowledge

The inscription glorifies Satrubhnja’s knowledge in the Puranas and Mahabharata. Subjects studied by him also include Itihasa (history), Vyakarana (grammar), Samiksa, Nyaya (law), Mimamsa (decision making), Chandas (metrical science), Vedas, Buddhist Scriptures and Samkhya (logical derivation). He is described as the storehouse of the knowledge and an expert in all the arts.

    

Relegious Activities

Satrubhanja is stated to have build houses and monasteries that belonged to different religious communities in his empire which glorifies his approach to all religions as a part of his policy of tolerance and secularism. The religious communities included Brahmacarins (Brahmin), Parivrajakas (travelers who make holy trip), Bhikshus (Buddhists alms seekers) and Nirgranthakas. The end of inscription also unveils that he had build a temple for god Siva. 

     

The Extent of his Empire known from his Religious Activities

The fall of Kushana Dynasty in eastern India and Murundas in Kalinga was caused by rigorous struggle of the combined Naga forces (Kausambi, Ahichhatra, Padmavati and Vindhyatavi) under the leadership of Satrubhanja and the rising Gupta power. The continuous classes between the Nagas and the combined Murunda and Kushan forces ultimately ended in the complete weakening of the Kushan authority in India. It is said that the king of the Kushan dynasty plunged into the river Ganga to commit suicide due the burden of insult inflicted upon him by Satrubhanja’s Naga forces. After the victory, Satrubhanja is said to have gifted lakhs of cows at places like Pataliputra, Gaya, Krimila, Dalavardhana, Pundrvardhana, Gokkhati, Khadranga, Tamaralipti and both North and South Toshali in Coastal Odisha as an act of holy duty. He donated lakhs of hiranaya (gold coins) to various Mathas (monasteries) such as the Sankhara Matha at Ahichatra and Manibhadra matha at Yaksheswara.

The vast amount of wealth distributed in foreign domains gives the extent of his territorial expansion after the conflict with the Kushan cum Murunda forces. Certain historians have treated him as a feudal king making pilgrimages to these holy places under the Gupta domain but after the rise of the Gupta dynasty, Samudragupta completely subjugated the Naga forces of Vindhyas and Odisha. This verifies that Nagas and Guptas were contenders for the power in India on the verge of the collapse of the Kushanas and it is not possible for a enemy king like Satrubhanja to be allowed to pilgrimages into so many places of the Gupta domain at the height of their enmity. Moreover, the amount of wealth donated in places mentioned on the Asanpat inscription describes the power and wealth he enjoyed as a lord of an empire instead of a preposterous idea of being a vassal or feudal king as assumed by certain downplaying historians.

Research Document Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak
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The Ancient References From Mythological Texts to the Name Utkala

(a) The First Utkala Kingdom Mentioned in the Puranas

                        (b) The Second Utkala Recorded from Historical Evidences

                 

                    Research Document Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak
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Odisha’s 7 Year War with Vijayanagara and Stubborn Odia Resistance.

The Rise of Suryavanshi Gajapati Empire of Odisha under Kapilendra Deva Routray

Kapilendra Deva Routray was the adopted son and an a minster in the court of the last but weakened Eastern Ganga Dynasty ruler, Bhanudeva. He usurped the throne of Odisha in absence of Bhanudeva started the Suryavanshi Dynasty. During his ascent to the throne the Sultan of Bengal, Ahmed Shah invaded Odisha but was defeated by the help of his trusted minister Gopinath Mohapatra. Faced with internal rebellions from the allies of the previous dynasty and feudal lords, he managed to contain the enemies at the border territories and consolidated his authority over the throne with brute force in 1443 A.D.

The southern enemies of Odisha, Reddys of Rajamundry and Devaraya II of Vijayanagara kingdom invaded his southern borders. Kapilendra Deva attacked and defeated them in numerous pitched battles. Later he defeated Malikarjuna of Vijayanagara and captured the Vijayanagara territory of Hampi. Malikarjuna was forced to be a vassal king and pay annual tributes. Kapilendra Deva camped on the river Godavari with a large 7,00,000 strong Odia army. Sensing threat from the Muslim Bahamani rulers he attacked them and occupied territories till the 8 miles outskirts of the capital, Bidar. Before he could march on Bidar, the Muslim Sharqui ruler of Jaunpur invaded his northern borders with 3,00,000 cavalry and 1400 war elephants forcing him to abandon the campaign and move against the invading enemy. The invaders were defeated and chased beyond the river Ganga. His eldest son and an able military commander, Hamvira Deva continued the campaign in the southern territories in his absence and finally subdued the Reddys of Rajamundry securing the southern territories. Kapilendra Deva with the help of Hamvira Deva managed to spread his empire from the river Ganga in north till the River Kaveri in south with Rameswaram marking as the southernmost point of his Empire by 1461 A.D. Despite numerous troubles from the beginning of his rule, Kapilendra Deva proved his worth as a warrior and an empire builder.

Civil War of Succession between Hamvira Deva and Purrushottama Deva

Kapilendra Deva passed the throne to his younger son Purushottama Deva instead of his brilliant military commander and son Hamvira Deva who had assisted him in building a large empire and proven his battle hardened worth. According to folklore, Kalpilendra Deva was initially confused over choosing the next Gajapti as both the sons were worthy. While climbing the twenty two holy steps at Purl Jagannath Temple, he was consistently seeking the lord’s divine guidance for the final decision while both the sons were accompanying behind him. The divine sign came right away as the royal garment worn by Kapilendra Deva around his shoulders and slipped away. The Gajapati prayed that the one son out of the two who will display no ego and will be submissive enough to pick up the cloth from the ground back to his father’s shoulders will be righteous enough to be the next emperor. Surprisingly, the learned younger son Purushottama Deva picks up the cloth as the battle hero and proud Hamvira Deva hesitates to bend down for the same. The choice was made with an exemplary instance on the very holy steps of the lord’s abode.

While Purushottma Deva was crowned in 1468 A.D, Hamvira Deva declares war on him to claim the throne in 1471 A.D. Hamvira Deva aligns with the old enemy, the Bahamani Sultans and secures their assistance in reinstalling himself on the throne. Bahamani Sultan agrees to him under the terms of the return of Udayagiri and Kondapalli regions from Odisha to them. Hamvira Deva defeats his younger brother and reclaims the Odisha throne as a vassal king under the Bahamanis in 1474 A.D. Taking advantage of the political disturbance, Saluva Narasingh of Vijayanagara re-captures Udaygiri fort. Ousted Purushottama Deva regroups his strength and attacks Hamvira Deva in 1476 A.D and reclaims his throne as he was powerless under the Bahamani Kingdom which was also suffering drought meanwhile.

Re-Capture of the Southern Territories

Purushottama marched south to reclaim lost territories with 10,000 Cavalry and 8,000 infantry and drove out Nizam-ul-mulk Hasan Bahrl from Rajmahendri. Within six years of the death of Bahmani Sultan, Purushottama had overrun the whole of the Godavari-Krishna doab and driven out the Muslims from their coveted post of Kondavidu where there was a bloody rebellion already underway. He captured the Bellamkonda fort driving the Muslims out of there. He attacked Kanchivarram ruled by Vijayanagara king, Virupaksha Raya II in 1489 A.D. The story of first two failed attempts to do so and then being assured by Lord Jagannath in his dreams followed by his success on the third attempt is immortalized in the Kanchi Kaveri Upakhyana of Odisha. According to the texts his marriage proposal to the Vijayanagara princess was rejected in a dishonorable manner before the campaign. After his victory over Kanchi, he brings back the Kanchi Ganesh and goddess Tarini idol as war trophies along with the princess for marriage. 

Prataprudra Deva Loses a Chance to Wipeout the Rival Vijayanagara and other Hostile Muslim Domains Due to Crisis in Odisha

Prataprudra Deva succeeds Purushottama Deva as the next Gajapati in the year 1497 A.D. In the initial years he was in a position to expand his empire as the Vijayanagara kingdom was falling apart due to its declining rule of Suluva dynasty. The Rajavolu and Anantvaram inscriptions of Prataprudra Deva confirm that he marched south willing to capture Rameswaram and met with success till Penar River after capturing the Vijayanagara capital for a brief period of time. He had also captured the forts of Khambammettu and Warangal in Telegana. While Prataprudra was halting over the city with the Odia army planning for further advance, severe famine struck Odisha in the year 1507-1508 A.D forcing him to abandon his advance for relief operations back home. King Vira Narashima of Vijayanagara eventually took control of the lost regions in his absence the following year. Hearing about this Prataprudra Deva prepared for a second southern campaign and marched again. But he was helpless to further reoccupy the recently lost territories in south as the Muslim Sultan Hussain Shah of Bengal invaded the northern borders of Odisha and the Muslim raiders had come inside the Odia heartland of Puri overrunning the Cuttack fort gallantly defended by his Gada Nayak (General) Ananta Samantaraya. The Jagannath idols were secretly moved out of the Puri temple and hidden in an island of the Chilika Lake.  Prataprudra Deva had to rush back to defend his kingdom while the raiders were defensively held up by his chosen governor, Bhoi Bidyadhar. The Gajapati chased the Muslims out of Odisha till Hugli’s Mandaran fort where they were defeated despite the treachery by some of his side changing generals like Govinda Bidhyadhar. By the time he emerged victorious over Bengal’s Muslim Sultan, a new and energetic king, Krishna Deva Raya ascended the throne in Vijayanagara rapidly revolutionizing the army with modern weapons, war horse purchases and training from Portuguese as well as the Arabs. To add to the further setbacks of Odisha, the great devotee Chaitanya arrived in Puri invoking the revolutionary neo-vaishnavism spiritual movement. Prataprudra Deva on his return from the Bengal campaign also slides into this environment because of his soft devotional heart, partially halting his much required military endeavors for the survival of the empire. A few conspiracy theorists doubt that some of Chaitanya’s followers were former court officials of the hostile Sultan Hussain Shah of Bengal.

                              

       IMAGE : Painting of Prataprudra Deva in service of the Devotte Chaitanya.

The Odia Military Organization and Preparedness before the Start of Hostilities

The Portuguese traveler, Duarte Barbosa who arrived in India at Vijayanagara in 1504 A.D and stayed till 1514 A.D mentions that the kingdom of Odisha was comprised of very good fighting men and the king possessed a mighty army of foot soldiers besides mentioning the ongoing skirmishes between Vijayanagara and Odisha. He also mentions that northern extent of the Odisha kingdom was till the River Ganga which was often called as Gouri Gua by the Odias then and was important place for pilgrimage. Beyond the River was the kingdom of Bengal with which the King of Odisha was also at war often.

The Odia army was primarily comprised of the peasant militia called Paikas. The recruits were selected from different castes and tribes, but for infantry combatants, the ‘Chasas’ or the peasant class people were mostly selected from an age of 20 for military service because they were physically and mentally tough. They underwent rigorous and dangerous training and were ever ready for battles. Paikas were also the ancient most combatants of Odisha and the term is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Padadika’. Paikas used various mantras or chanting during warfare to keep their morals boosted even in the face of impending death.   

The Annotations

·         Phadikaras - Swordsmen

·         Dhanuki or Banua – Mask wearing Archers

·         Prahari – The policing wing of the Paikas

·         Dhenkiya – Expeditionary or Attack force

·         Itakaras - Dancers and Entertainers.

The presence of the Itakaras gives a clear picture about the knowledge of experienced war time psychological and motivational efforts for the soldiers. The Ghumura folk dance is believed to be the ancient most form of motivational war dance.

The Major Infantry Designations of the Time

·         Senapati or Senadhyaksha – Commander of the Army units.

·         Champati – Commander of Chamu or Army divisions.

·         Vahinipati – Paika Troop Commander.

·         Paikaraya – Paika Band Commander.

·         Dala Behera – Detachment or Group commanders.

·         Gada Nayak / Nayak – Garrison Commanders and Fort duty officers.

·         Bahubalendra - Officer in charge of the Non combatants. 

·         Bhoimmul – Officer in charge of recruitment.

Infantry Divisions

·         Dala – Consisted 27 Paikas.

·         Bhuyian – Consisted 70 Paikas.

·         Vahini – Consisted many Bhuyians.

·         Chamu – Consisted number of Vahinis as per requirement.

The main strength of the Odia army depended on infantry, cavalry and Squads of Elephants. The Gajapati title for the kings of Odisha literally means the lord of war elephants. Elephant corps and cavalry had subsequent designations. In one battle with Krishna Deva Prataprudra used 1300 elephants and 20,000 horses and 5,00,000 strong Paikas. 

Disadvantages in Terms of Strategic Location

The Vijayanagara kingdom had three strategic advantages over the Gajapati Empire. They only faced two frontal enemies the Gajapatis and the Bahamani Muslim sultanate while its flank was completely covered by the ocean without any enemies threatening them. The Gajapati Odisha was facing hostile warring enemies on three fronts including the Vijayanagara Empire, new Muslim Sultanate of Golconda and the Muslim ruled Bengal in the north. Besides this the Bahamani Sultanate towards the west was not reliable of its allegiance if hostilities broke out. Prataprudra Deva had to scatter his military deployments in all the three fronts unlike Vijayanagara which was able to concentrate its complete strength on one opponent while containing the other with defensive deployments. The second disadvantage for Odisha was the location of its far outstretched frontier forts away from the capital Cuttack whereas Vijayanagara’s capital was in the immediate vicinity of the frontier forts controlled by few Odias giving them capability to rush supplies, forces and aid faster than Odisha. The third disadvantage for Odisha was seize of Sea trade activity or very little sea trade which is also mentioned by the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbossa. However, Barbossa’s presence in the Vijayanagara kingdom himself at the time was due to the open sea trade activity on the west coast of India. The west coast trade routes opened the path for advanced foreign firearms, weaponry and war horses to be availed by Vijayanagara. Besides the trade, experienced foreign mercenaries were brought in to train the army with new combat techniques.

Seize of Udayagiri and the 3:1 Outmatched Heroic Resistance for 18 Months

Krishna Deva Raya was facing enemies on two fronts of his kingdom. The Bahamani Sultanate was a prevailing threat to the Vijayanagara kingdom along with the Gajapati Empire on his eastern front. Krishna Deva Raya had revolutionized his forces with increased man power and foreign weapons technology of the time. For instance before his time horse mounted archery was only known to the armies in north India but as per the written accounts of the time, at one point of time 60,000 horsemen where being trained in Vijayanagara to shoot arrows with perfection while riding on their horse continuously. The Arab tradesmen were selling the finest horses to the army and the Portuguese were supplying them with the firearms training and weapons. Southern port of Bhatkal in the western coast of India was a market from where horses were imported from outside and the dealers coming from the Vijayanagara kingdom paid the price of 200 to 300 Portuguese gold coins along with a government tax of 40 such coins for every horse. Krishna Deva also had created an effective spy network that ultimately proved to be more deadly during battle. He also had an able strategist like the prime advisor Timma Raju or Appa Rao on whose advice he first decided to invade the outstretched Odia army in the eastern front rather than the Muslim Adil-Sahi Sultanate of Bijapur towards north. 

As the first move, Vijayanagara forces subdued the Velama rulers of Bhuvangiri along with others in the year 1512 that were vassals of the Gajapati Empire and had assisted the Odia army in building the Udayagiri fort before. Marching up to the Krishna River, Krishna Deva suddenly attacks Odia stronghold of Udayagiri fort as it was closer to the Vijayanagara capital and then the Gajapati Capital, Cuttack and relatively also away from their regional administrative headquarters of Kondapalli. Prataprudra Deva was not expecting an attack on the Udayagiri Fort as there were good relations with Krishna Deva Raya since his coronation three years back. The fort was  also impregnable with a difficult terrain around it allowing access only through a narrow passage which could only afford one man to walk through straight. Udayagiri was guarded by the able general and his paternal uncle, Tirumala Routraya. A strong Odia garrison of 10,000 infantry and 400 horsemen guarded the fort with constant vigil and with nearly 8000 men deployed on the outskirts of the fort.

Krishna Deva launches a sudden attack with an army consisting of 34,000 infantry and 800 elephants which clearly portrays 1:3 outmatched figures within the armies facing each other. The wits of the Odias were pushed to unimaginable limits under the attack and due the natural strength of the location they put up a stubborn resistance. The writings of Fernao Nunes mention that there was a tooth and nail fight put up by the Odia soldiers who were strongly determined to not give up their positions. Krishna Deva had to take the lead himself when his best techniques of seize and his most capable generals failed in making much headway for a long time. His army had to cut through boulders from the surrounding hills to find a suitable position and path to lay an effective attack on the heroic Odia garrison which held out for a long 18 months time suffering from starvation. Odia soldiers were dying of starvation but didn’t surrender despite any help arriving from Odisha. Prataprudra Deva had deployed his forces on the northern frontier against the Muslim invaders of Bengal and was unable to send immediate help to the trapped garrison. Krishna Deva Raya’s forces were able to track this helplessness of the Gajapati with their spy network of Sthanapatis (ambassadors) in the Vijayanagara embassy at Odisha. The Odia garrison had to finally surrender after good deal of resistance and extremely heroic cum gallant efforts to hold their positions under starvation on 9^th June 1514. Along with the capture of Gajapati’s own paternal uncle, the Vijayanagara forces also carried away the Bala Gopala idol from the fort as a war trophy.

Odia Resistance on the Way to Kondavidu Fort

The forts of Kondapalli and Kondavidu were situated along the Krishna River surrounded by a difficult non supportive terrain for an invading army. Kondapalli was the administrative headquarters of the Gajapati Empire and the crown prince of Odisha, Virabhadra was himself in charge of Kondavidu fort. To objectively capture the important forts, Krishna Deva first decided to bring down the smaller forts on the way where separate Odia garrisons were organizing the defense preparations after the fall of Udayagiri.  Krishna Deva understood that if Kondavidu and Kondapalli were taken head on then the Odia garrisons in the smaller forts could attack him on his flanks. The first attack came on Vinukonda followed by Bellamkonda and later on the other forts like Nagarjunakonda, Addanki, Ketavaram, etc. The stubborn resistance of the respective Odia garrisons in the smaller forts halted the progress of the Vijayanagara forces by six months to Kondavidu. Accounts specifically mention that the Odia fighters were stubborn and were not willing to stand down even after the fort fell and consistently tried to regain their control creating troubles for their enemy. Probably the fierce defensive stand for Kondavidu and Kondapalli was held with high moral as the defenders understood that if Kondapalli falls then the enemy might be able to march on to Odisha directly later.

Stubborn Resistance at Kondavidu Fort

Vijayanagara forces attacked Kondavidu fort after the smaller forts on the way fell. Prataprudra Deva arrived with a force consisting 50,000 infantry of hard fighting Paikas to reinforce the stranded Odia garrisons at Kondavidu and Kondapalli. Learning about this from his spies, Krishna Deva decided to retreat. He understood that the presence of Gajapati himself would be a huge morale booster for the stranded Odia garrisons and they will be unbreakable considering their stubborn resistance which was a difficult for his forces to crack down despite huge losses. The retreat was a part of Krishna Deva’s strategy of ‘Bheda’ (penetration into the enemy lines through espionage without direct attack). The momentary retreat convinced the Gajapati about the safety of the fort from any further incursions by the enemy. Marking sufficient deployments at Kondavidu, he left for Kondapalli fort situated four miles away from Vijayawada for reinforcements. After he left from Kondavidu, Krishna Deva under the advice of his Timma Raju tried to successfully bribe some officers of Gajapati.

Vijayanagara forces marched up to the foothills of Kondavidu fort enforcing an assault. The gallant crown prince in charge of the fort resisted the enemy for three months with the Odia Garrison and frustrated the enemy. The Amuktamalyada accounts written by Krishna Deva himself says that Odia soldiers assembled in the fort went to heaven without receiving a wound on their bodies, which signifies that the soldiers were dying out of thirst due to lack of water but bravely held on. The Ahobalam inscription says that the Vijayanagara forces erected movable wooden platforms called Nadachapparams to level themselves to the height of the fort walls and launch attacks from outside on the stubborn garrison. After a frustrating long battle, Timma Raju discovered a secret entrance to the eastern gates of the fort and marched in a force of 10,000 men to assault the starving and thirsty Odia garrison. The gallant Virabhadra and the Gajapati’s grandson, Narahari Patra were captured with the surrender of the garrison on 23^rd June 1515.  The strategy of Bheda worked for Krishna Deva as some of the absconders from the fort later joined the Vijayanagara forces and were reappointed on behalf of Vijayanagara. It is also quite possible that some of them disclosed the secret entrance into the fort before Timma Raju.

Attack on Kondapalli and Capture of the Queen of Gajapati

Kondapalli is situated northeast of Vijayawada towards the north of Krishna River. Taking desperate measures to guard the Dandapat headquarters, Prataprudra Deva convinced hostile Qutub Shai Muslim ruler to support him in containing the Vijayanagara army. Muslim detachments jointly defended the Kondapalli fort with the Odias. Dreadful fighting ensued at the Kondapalli fort with the death on both the sides. The fight turned even dreaded as the Gajapati sent a detachment to reinforce the overwhelmed Odia and Muslim soldiers at Kondapalli. Sadly one of the three queens of Gajapati was present at the fort that time. The Odia detachment was defeated at Vijayawada while the rest of the army retreated back to Simhadri in north. The Muslim detachment along with few Odia soldiers at Kondapalli where also run over by the enemy forces after two months of resistance which led to the capture of the Queen as well. Gajapati General Sirsa Chandra Mohapatra, commander Prahareswara patra and Muslim detachment general Bijli khan were also captured along with other nobles.

Though his family members were held captive, Prataprudra didn’t make any attempts of peace and prepared for a major confrontation at Kalingapatnam. Krishna Deva decided to halt his progress further and moved to conquer Telangana and Vengi that was Gajapati territory routing the remaining and cut off Odia forces deployed there. Forts like Anantagiri, Nalagonda. Kambhammettu ,Undrakonda, Urlagonda, etc where captured successively. Timma Raju advised Krishna Deva to stop further advance into the Odia homeland as their fighting capability was intact and becoming more stubborn after every defeat. Skeptical Krishna Deva Raya wanted to put his doubts to a test.

Hell Breaks Loose on Vijayanagara Forces at the Eastern Ghats Passes

Krishna Deva Raya orders a large section of the his forces to march to Simhadri through the Eastern Ghats passes of Rajmahendri. Simhadri was a major sit of administration of Odia kingdom’s administrative division of Odadi Dandapat/Mandala. The Gajapati general deployed on the front line was Sitapati or Sitaph Khan who was formerly the governor in charge of the major forts of Warangal, Bellam konda and Khambam Mettu in the Telegana region. He was renounced to be a physically strong man followed by 12,000 infantry of Paikas who were also known to be excellent marksmen. Sitapati also had retreated from Telegana saving the manpower for an ultimate clash with the enemy. When the Vijayanagara army marched into the hilly regions of the Eastern Ghats on their way to Simhadri, Sitapati was waiting with an army of Paikas constituting 60,000 horse mounted archers in the mountainous passes. Obstructing the enemy’s progress into Odisha, 60,000 arrows rained down on the Vijayanagara forces at a time on each command. The deadly attack trapped the enemy forces in the hilly passes giving them extreme losses. The Vijayanagara army started retreating in haste facing the well planned attack. Krishna Deva with the help of his spy network scaled the region more effectively and launched a sneak attack from the flanks of the defending Odia forces. The ferocity of the battle and good deal of fight given by the Stubborn Odias can be guessed from the documents clarifying the death of 23,000 archers and 4000 horses in the Odia army. Sitapati had to surrender but the increasing ferocity by Odias into each move towards their territory did confirm the warning of Timma Raju for Krishna Deva.

Vijayanagara's Strategy of Bheda

The Gajapati tactfully shifted his regional headquarters of Oddadi Mandala to Kalingapatnam from Simhadri avoiding instant clash with the enemy. Prataprudra Deva was carefully planning for a head on fight with the Vijayanagara forces at Kalingapatnam with his sixteen Patras(advisors) assembled together. The intended plans of the Odia side were leaked through spies to Krishna Deva. Witnessing the fierce resistance at Rajmahendri, Timma Raju advised him to implement the strategy of Bheda on the Gajapati instead of risking back breaking losses in a head on fight. Special dispatches of sixteen boxes filled with gold and valuables were sent out as bribe to the sixteen Patras with the intention to be somehow be captured by Gajapati himself. Along with each dispatch a letter was sent which demanded the surrender of the Gajapati to the Vijayanagara forces while pretending to be fighting from his side. It also promised them re appointments and more rewards if the Patras complied. Reading the contents of the letters, the Gajapati had a very genuine reason to suspect the loyalty of his generals as he had witnessed a similar treachery on the northern frontier with Bengal earlier. Under the possible circumstance of his capture, Odisha would have had to surrender completely despite the availability of vast resources to continue the war. Prataprudra Deva retreated in a hurry to avoid any such possibility for the sake of his future fighting capability against the enemy.  After the Gajapati left, Krishna Deva leaves a detachment of 30,000 soldiers at Rajmahendri to guard his flanks and marched into Simhadri where the royal Gajapati mansion was taken over after the bell metal doors were broken with the help of elephants amidst the continuing resistance by the Odia army. He appoints his own close followers to guard the mansion and expecting no further moves from the Gajapati, returns to Vijayanagara to check incursions in his northern frontiers. 

Captive Crown Prince of Odisha Commits Suicide for Honor

The accounts of the Portuguese Fernao Nunes say, since his capture the gallant crown prince of Odisha Virabhadra was noticed to be very active and a dexterous swordsman. Krishna Deva Raya with the intent to break his pride and honor, asks him to display his ability as a swordsman in front of the courtiers. Being a Kshyatriya (warrior class), he complies. Belonging to a noble family he was expecting to face an opponent from a noble family as well. But Krishna Deva brought forth a common soldier who also happened to be a master swordsman and was involved in training his army. Seeing an opponent from the common class, the noble Virabhadra felt insulted to the core of his heart as he was living under the guilt of losing to the enemy at Kondavidu and being taken captive. Virabhadra slit his own throat with the sword before the fight could begin crying out loud “God forbid, I come from a noble ruling class. I will never display my martial skills against an opponent from a common background”. This incident also throws light on the threatening of torture and death given by Krishna Deva Raya to Virabhadara if he didn’t fight as he could have simply declined the fight instead of committing suicide. He chose to die with his own hands rather than be tortured by his captivators.

Spies Report the Intact Fighting Capabilities of Odisha

Hearing about the fate of his son Prataprudra Deva was broken but didn’t give up. The standoff continued on the frontiers of Simhadri, but he never attempted to make peace with Vijayanagara. He was more prepared to defend his kingdom in case there is further invasion from the enemy. Krishna Deva was now facing more organized and aggressive Muslim invaders from the new Golconda Empire. Having wounded the Odia pride in the ongoing war and the personal honor of the Gajapati he was also sensing more possible ferocious retaliation from the Odia army in case he made further moves into the Odia domain from Simhadri. Vijayanagara’s spy network confirmed his doubts through the reports presented before him at Vijayanagara. The words from the spies to him at Vijayanagara confirmed that Odisha was still ready to fight and the Odia army couldn’t be challenged in the battle field if he entered into their domain. Few accounts collected shed light on the spy reports as below.

“The Gajapati king gets up from bed early in the morning two hours before sunrise and salutes two Brahmins before looking at any other person. Then accompanied by the Sixteen Patras [the Brahminical council], he goes on a ride of about twenty or thirty miles before returning to the palace. After taking his bath, he engages himself in the daily worship of Lord Jagannath, after which he takes his midday meal. After food, he recites the Ramayana. Then, putting on official robes bedecked with jewels, he sits in the court and transacts his daily business.

We entered the city of Cuttack and saw the palace of Gajapati, the mansions of the sixteen Patras, the gymnasium and the people who take exercises there in. Even the gods and the demons are not capable of exhibiting such skills in physical exercises as they show. Your majesty might have observed the skill in physical exercises shown by the great wrestlers of the Gajapati is totally different. They alone are capable of lifting up such heavy dumbbell. They lift up and what is more they lift them up cross wise. They raise a sack weighing 10 paddes to the height of the uplifted arm of standing man and throw upon it upon their own bodies.  Moreover they catch the sack between their thighs and suspended themselves in the air, taking hold of the crossbeam. The reason for taking this exercise is this; while engaged in battles the troopers are accustomed to carry their opponents bodily, imprisoning them between one of their arms and the body, if however the opponents fight without losing their hold on their steeds they abandon their attempt considering the opponent to be unmanageable. The riders are armored horses are not afraid of any wound which they might receive. They attempt to carry away under their arm such riders. The soldiers practice their exercises in order to remain firm courageously on such occasions. They completely demolish walls of hundred feet with arummi mattakhandam which is heavy enough to be carried by a man on his head. They cut with swords tamarind pillars as early as they cut the pitch of plantation trees planting two crow-bars together on the ground they cut them to pieces with their swords. They bring basketful of cymbal discs and twist four or five of them together. As the blacksmith are not able to separate them, they place on the anvil and detach them with the aid of a hammer and bring them again in good condition for the next day’s use. More over they break iron clubs at any given points. The wrestlers of the country who go there return with a feeling that it is not possible for them to cope with their methods of taking exercise. The wealth and strength of that place cannot be seen anywhere.”

The Peace Offer and the Moderate Gesture of Vijayanagara

By the time the hostilities were still on, the former Bahamani Sultanate had broken into four new hostile Muslim states on Vijayanagara’s borders. Another new empire of Golconda was making preparations for war on the lines of modernization of military during the initial years of Krishna Deva. Learning about the intact fighting potential of Odisha, Krishna Deva understood that his victory march will be turned into regrettable losses if the war continued with Odisha. Being a Hindu king Krishna Deva had violated the ethics of war by keeping the Odisha queen in captivity along with other family members of the Gajapati. This proved to be his ultimate bargaining chip to compel Prataprudra Deva to settle upon peace process. But the return of family members would not have guaranteed his withdrawal from war while Krishna Deva took on the Muslim kingdoms at Raichur. He would not have been able to make war on two fronts simultaneously like the mighty Odisha which was warring with three hostile neighbors at the same time and still holding on strong. As advised by Timma Raju the only way to keep the Gajapati behind his lines was to offer him certain portions of the occupied territories and enter into marriage relation with his family.  Moderate messages offering peace were sent to the Gajapati which contained all the terms that Vijayanagara was prepared to comply with if Odisha promised peace. Assuming that Odisha lost to Vijayanagara would be an inappropriate conclusion as peace offers with return of controlled territories should always be made by the losing side and not the victors. Some terms of the peace offer were as mentioned below.

·        Return of the royal family members, captured nobles and generals to the Gajapati.

·        Return of territories north of Krishna River to Odisha.

·        Marriage with the Gajapati’s daughter Jaganmohini.

·        No collaboration with the hostile Muslim States while Vijayanagara indulged with them and abstention from war.

At the cost of aggressor offering all the captured territories and family members, Gajapati also decided to secure his southern frontiers as he was also facing direct invasion from the Muslim ruler of Bengal. The daughter of Prataprudra Deva was married off with Krishna Deva. The marriage which is mentioned in Rayavachakamu , Krishna-faya-vijayam and lamil-Navalar-Charifai was based on a political decision and not human bonding. The Odisha princess was abandoned by Krishna Deva and led a life of seclusion at Khambam in Cuddapa district for the rest of her days.  

Conclusion

Vijayanagara gained territories up until Krishna River and the northern portions were handed back to the Gajapati. Odisha never lost the war and Prataprudra Deva proved to be able defender of Odisha under the circumstances of all out war at all his frontiers. Krishna Deva’s fear of loss and Odisha’s intact fighting capabilities were proven by the further battles with the Muslim state of Golconda in the southern frontiers and the invasion into Vijayanagara territory after his death in 1529 A.D. The below image  is of the copper plate grants made by Prataprudra Deva in the southern territories of today’s Andhra after the death of Krishna Deva Raya proves that Odias were ferocious fighters, continuously fought on  and never accepted defeat.

Detailed Article Submitted by Manjit Keshari Nayak

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